1. Definition of Observation

Observation is a method of collecting data by watching, listening, and recording behaviours, interactions, physical environments, or processes as they naturally occur.
It allows the researcher to understand the phenomenon as it happens, rather than relying solely on participants’ reports.

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2. Key Characteristics of Observation in Qualitative Research

• Conducted directly at the research site (classroom, workshop, office, community).

• Naturalistic — the researcher does not manipulate the environment.

• Produces rich, detailed, descriptive data.

• May be overt (participants know) or covert (participants do not know).

• Requires systematic field notes and reflective writing.

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3. Types of Observation

a) Non-participant Observation

The researcher observes without involvement in the activity.

b) Participant Observation

The researcher becomes part of the activity — common in ethnographic studies.

c) Structured Observation

Uses a checklist or pre-identified categories; less flexible.

d) Unstructured Observation

Open-ended, without predefined categories; highly flexible and exploratory.

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4. Purposes of Observation

• To understand actual behaviours of participants.

• To see how processes unfold in real time.

• To validate or complement interview and document data.

• To capture social interactions, routines, organisational culture, and group dynamics.

• To identify factors not expressed by participants.

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5. What Do Researchers Observe?

Researchers pay attention to:

• Behaviours

• Human interactions

• Use of space and physical setting

• Language, emotions, and expressions

• Classroom or workplace practices

• Tools, materials, and documents

• Implicit norms and informal rules

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6. Steps in Conducting Observation

1. Identify the focus of observation.

2. Select the research site.

3. Enter the field and build rapport with participants.

4. Observe systematically.

5. Record field notes, including:

   • Descriptive notes (what is seen)

   • Reflective notes (researcher’s thoughts)

6. Use photos/videos if permitted.

7. Analyse the data through coding, themes, and patterns.

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7. Advantages of Observation

• Provides authentic, real-time data.

• Captures implicit behaviours and spontaneous actions.

• Enables holistic understanding of the context.

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8. Limitations of Observation

• Time-consuming and labour-intensive.

• Presence of the researcher may cause reactivity.

• Ethical concerns — privacy, consent, sensitivity.

• Difficult to document everything at once.

1. Definition

Non-participant observation is a method in which the researcher does not take part in the activities or interactions being studied.
The researcher remains an external observer, watching events as they naturally occur without influencing the behaviour of participants.

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2. Key Characteristics

• The researcher does not participate in the activity being observed.

• Observation is done from a distance or as a neutral bystander.

• Participants may know or not know that they are being observed (overt/covert).

• Produces more objective data since the researcher is not socially involved.

• Suitable when researcher involvement might disrupt the situation or alter behaviour.

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3. Purposes

Non-participant observation is used to:

• Capture actual behaviour without researcher interference.

• Understand processes, routines, and interactions in real settings.

• Observe situations naturally and neutrally.

• Complement data from interviews or documents.

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4. How It Is Conducted

1. Define the focus of observation.

2. Select the appropriate site and time.

3. Position the researcher in a place where they can watch without disturbing the activity.

4. Record behaviours, interactions, and events in field notes.

5. Maintain the role of a passive observer.

6. Analyse the data through coding and thematic interpretation.

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5. Advantages

• Minimises the risk of researcher influencing participants’ behaviour.

• Provides an authentic view of the situation.

• Suitable for classrooms, organisations, workplaces, and structured environments.

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6. Limitations

• Researcher may misinterpret behaviours due to lack of participation.

• Limited to what can be observed from the outside.

• Some social processes are not easily observable without interaction.

1. Definition

Participant observation is a method of data collection in which the researcher actively participates in the activities or interactions being studied while simultaneously observing them.
The researcher becomes part of the setting, either fully or partially, to understand the phenomenon from an insider’s perspective.

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2. Key Characteristics

• The researcher directly engages in the participants’ activities.

• Provides deep, in-depth understanding of behaviours, culture, and context.

• Can be conducted overtly (participants know) or covertly (participants do not know).

• Commonly used in ethnographic studies, community research, organisational studies, and cultural investigations.

• Requires building rapport and gaining acceptance within the group.

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3. Purposes

Participant observation is used to:

• Understand the phenomenon from within, not just from an outsider’s view.

• Explore beliefs, norms, values, and cultural practices of participants.

• Observe social relationships and group dynamics more clearly.

• Capture behaviours or meanings not easily expressed in interviews.

• Complement other methods such as interviews and document analysis.

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4. Levels of Participation

Researchers may adopt different degrees of involvement:

• Passive participant – present but minimally involved.

• Moderate participant – participates occasionally and shares some experiences.

• Active participant – engages in most activities as a member.

• Complete participant – fully embedded in the group, often covertly.

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5. How It Is Conducted

1. Identify the purpose and level of involvement.

2. Select the appropriate setting or community.

3. Build rapport and gain entry into the group.

4. Participate in activities while observing behaviours, interactions, and context.

5. Record detailed field notes, including experiences, interactions, and reflections.

6. Analyse data through codes, themes, and interpretive insights.

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6. Advantages

• Provides rich, holistic, and in-depth understanding of real contexts.

• Captures cultural norms, values, and subtle behaviours difficult to obtain through interviews alone.

• Allows the researcher to experience the phenomenon firsthand.

• Generates meaningful and comprehensive qualitative data.

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7. Limitations

• Time-consuming and requires effort to be accepted by the group.

• Higher risk of researcher bias due to deep involvement.

• Ethical issues related to consent, privacy, and covert participation.

• Researcher involvement may affect objectivity.

Structured Observation

1. Definition

Structured observation is a method of data collection in which the researcher uses predefined categories, checklists, or rating scales to observe specific behaviours or events.
The focus of observation is determined before entering the field, making the process systematic and organised.

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2. Key Characteristics

• Uses clear, predetermined categories or behavioural indicators.

• The researcher knows exactly what to observe in advance.

• Produces data that is systematic, consistent, and easy to analyse.

• Often uses observation forms, grids, rating scales, or checklists.

• Suitable for situations requiring accuracy, standardisation, or comparison.

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3. Purposes

Structured observation is used to:

• Assess specific behaviours consistently across participants or situations.

• Produce data that can be counted, compared, or measured.

• Observe processes or practices with standards or established procedures.

• Complement qualitative data from interviews or documents.

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4. Examples of Use

• Classroom observations using a teaching rubric.

• Observing student behaviours such as frequency of asking questions.

• Organisational studies — observing meeting procedures, SOP compliance, or staff communication.

• Industrial settings — checking safety equipment usage.

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5. How It Is Conducted

1. Define the categories or items to be observed based on theory or research need.

2. Develop an observation instrument (checklist, rating scale, grid).

3. Determine the procedures (location, duration, frequency).

4. Conduct the observation systematically.

5. Record each behaviour or event according to the predefined categories.

6. Analyse the data — frequency counts, patterns, or integration with thematic analysis.

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6. Advantages

• Produces standardised data, allowing easy comparison.

• Reduces researcher bias because the categories are predefined.

• Suitable for studies focusing on specific, observable behaviours.

• Useful for triangulation with other data sources.

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7. Limitations

• Less flexible — important behaviours not on the checklist may be missed.

• Does not capture the full context or deeper meanings behind behaviour.

• Quality depends heavily on the accuracy of the observation instrument.

• Difficult when behaviours occur rapidly or unpredictably.